What qualities do modern presidents need to fulfill their many roles?
The U.S. president today is often viewed as the most powerful national leader in the world. At one time, however, the U.S. president held far less power. During the 1800s, with a few exceptions, presidents acted mainly as “chief clerks.” Other than carrying out the will of Congress, they assumed little authority other than those powers explicitly granted them by the Constitution.
The Constitution spells out the president's formal powers, which are listed in this diagram. One of the most important powers is that of commander in chief of the armed forces. The president, a civilian official, maintains control over the military and has ultimate responsibility for military decisions.
The president also has the power to grant reprieves and pardons. A reprieve is a postponement of punishment, whereas a pardon is a release from punishment. Presidents may also grant amnesty, or a blanket pardon, to people facing prosecution. President Jimmy Carter, for example, granted amnesty to young men who had fled the country to avoid the military draft during the Vietnam War.
The president's greatest formal power stems from Article II, Section 3 of the Constitution. This section directs the president to “take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed.” Much as the Elastic Clause gives broad powers to Congress, this “Take Care” Clause grants the president flexible powers to enforce the law and fulfill other executive duties. Not surprisingly, the first president to define how the powers of the office would be used was George Washington.
As the nation's first president, Washington knew that his every action would help shape the office for future generations. “I walk on untrodden ground,” he observed. “There is scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be drawn into precedent."
One precedent involved his formal title. Washington insisted on being addressed simply as “Mr. President,” rather than “Your Highness” or some other majestic title. Rather than ruling like an aloof monarch, Washington traveled the country to maintain contact with citizens. He also declined to seek reelection after serving two terms in office, setting a precedent that would last until 1940.
Washington established the model for how the executive branch should be run. He appointed the first department heads and brought them together to create the first cabinet. He negotiated the new government's first treaty. He appointed its first judges. He received its first ambassadors. He signed its first laws. And he issued the first veto.
Perhaps most importantly, Washington made sure that the president would be respected as a figure of authority. He did this by projecting an air of great dignity and strength. In addition, he took tough action when necessary to ensure that acts of Congress were “faithfully executed."
Washington's determination to enforce the law was tested by the Whiskey Rebellion. In 1791, Congress passed a law that taxed sales of whiskey. Farmers in western Pennsylvania who made whiskey refused to pay the tax and even attacked federal tax collectors. Washington personally led 13,000 militia troops into western Pennsylvania to put down the rebellion. In this way, he affirmed the power of the president as the nation's chief law enforcer and commander in chief.
Like Washington, Andrew Jackson believed in using the powers given to the president to the fullest. Jackson was elected president at a time when many states had eliminated property requirements for voting. As a result, he was the first occupant of the White House who could claim to have been elected by “the people."
Once in office, Jackson saw his role as the champion of the common people. As such, he often clashed with Congress. In these power struggles, he turned to a tool seldom used by earlier presidents: the veto. Previous presidents had vetoed acts of Congress only when they viewed them as unconstitutional. Jackson vetoed legislation simply because he disagreed with it or thought it ran counter to the people's interests.
During his two terms in office, Jackson vetoed 12 bills, more than the total number of bills struck down by all of his predecessors combined. His most famous veto involved a bill renewing the charter of the National Bank of the United States. Supporters of the bank argued it was needed to stabilize the nation's economy. Jackson believed that the bank was designed to benefit the wealthy at the expense of the people. In a message explaining his veto, Jackson wrote,
Critics of Jackson's use of this presidential power dubbed him “King Andrew.” Nevertheless, since Jackson's day, the idea that presidents can and will use their veto power to shape public policy has become an accepted feature of American politics.
Abraham Lincoln became one of the most powerful presidents in U.S. history, in large part because his election triggered a national crisis. By the time he took office in 1861, seven southern states had seceded from the United States. In his inaugural speech, Lincoln argued that no state “can lawfully get out of the Union.” He went on to say,
Lincoln used all of his powers to carry out this duty. Once in office, he spent money. He raised an army. He ordered the navy to blockade southern ports. He declared martial law in Maryland and other states, placing the people there under military rule. He shut down newspapers that advocated secession. He suspended habeas corpus so that people suspected of treason could be arrested and jailed by the military without worrying about due process.
All of these actions were taken by the new president without prior approval of Congress. Moreover, when a federal court ruled in Ex parte Merryman (1861) that suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional, Lincoln ignored the ruling .
Likewise, Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation without approval from Congress or even his full cabinet. When the president showed a draft of the proclamation to his cabinet members, their response was mixed. Some members supported it, while others were strongly opposed. Nevertheless, Lincoln went ahead with the plan. On January 1, 1863, he released the proclamation as an executive order. a rule issued by the president that has the force of law. With the order, Lincoln transformed the war for the Union into an antislavery crusade.
Lincoln's many critics argued that he had far exceeded his constitutional powers. Lincoln, however, believed that extreme measures were justified to preserve the Union and the Constitution. By his actions, he demonstrated that during a national emergency, a president might exercise almost unlimited powers.
The presidents who followed Lincoln acted more as clerks than executive officers. Then, in the early 1900s, Theodore Roosevelt breathed new life into the office. Roosevelt used the presidency as a platform from which to speak out on important public issues. “I suppose my critics will call that preaching,” he said, “but I have got such a bully pulpit!"
Roosevelt was a stirring speaker who loved being seen and heard. He also knew how to work the media. He held daily press briefings. He let photographers take pictures of him at work and play. As a result, his name and smiling image were everywhere.
Roosevelt believed the president should act as a “steward of the public welfare.” To fulfill that role, he took a broad view of his powers. He later wrote,
As the public's steward, Roosevelt created government agencies to ensure safer food and drugs. He promoted conservation of the nation's resources. He pursued an active foreign policy in the belief that the United States was destined to be a great power. The public was so impressed by his energetic leadership that he was reelected in 1904 by the greatest margin of votes in U.S. history up to that time.
Theodore Roosevelt planted the seeds that would flower during the presidency of his distant cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR. More than any president before him, FDR transformed the role of chief executive from chief clerk to what we think of as the modern presidency.
Like Lincoln, FDR came into office during a time of crisis: the Great Depression. During his first 100 days in office, Roosevelt called Congress into special session and presented it with 15 major bills. Congress passed them all. Later, he won passage of such groundbreaking programs as Social Security and unemployment insurance. In promoting his New Deal reforms, he dramatically expanded the role of the president. As political scientists have put it,
Part of FDR' s power lay in his style as president. Whereas previous presidents had used formal speeches to get their ideas across, FDR addressed the American people directly, in their own homes, through a series of radio broadcasts known as “fireside chats.” In these chats, Roosevelt spoke to listeners in a warm, engaging manner, explaining his ideas and asking for their support. In this way, many Americans came to see the president not as a distant leader, but as a friend who understood their concerns.
During World War II, FDR expanded his powers still further. But rather than objecting to this growth of presidential power, most Americans applauded Roosevelt as a “savior.” As one political scientist observed, “The argument was simple: The more power the executive had, the more good he could do."
Since the end of World War II, the presidency has been powerful, no matter who is in the White House. By the 1970s, some critics of presidential power voiced concerns about the rise of an “imperial presidency,” meaning presidents acted more like emperors than constitutional leaders. Nonetheless, the president today is still limited in his powers to those set down in the Constitution more than two centuries ago.