What qualities do modern presidents need to fulfill their many roles?
President John F. Kennedy once said, “No easy problem ever comes to the President of the United States. If they are easy to solve, somebody else has solved them.” Lyndon Johnson, who assumed the presidency after Kennedy's assassination, called the job an “awesome burden.” After looking at the modern president's many duties, one scholar noted, “All that is missing is Mover of Mountains and Raiser of the Dead."
Given the complexities of the modern world, the job of president has grown more challenging. To carry out their duties as chief executive, presidents must assume many different roles. The diagram “The President's Many Roles” shows the various roles the president plays on any given day.
Chief executive. As the country's chief executive, the president acts much like the head of a large corporation. In this role, the president presides over the federal bureaucracy. or the various agencies and organizations that carryon the daily business of government. To keep that bureaucracy running, the president is responsible for appointing close to 2,000 federal officials. These officials, in turn, oversee the work of nearly 2 million civilian employees of the federal government.
As chief executive, the president has the power to issue executive orders. A president is most likely to use this power during an emergency or when Congress fails to take action on an important issue. For example, in 1948, Congress was divided over a bill to desegregate the armed forces. Rather than waiting for Congress to act, President Harry Truman issued an executive order abolishing segregation in the military.
Chief of state. The president also acts as chief of state, the ceremonial leader of the government. In many countries, different individuals hold the positions of chief executive and chief of state. In Great Britain, for example, the prime minister is the chief executive, while the monarch is the chief of state. In the United States, however, the president wears both hats.
As chief of state, the president represents the United States at official functions, both at home and abroad. For example, the president greets foreign leaders and hosts state dinners at the White House. Chief of state duties also include acts to promote national spirit, as when the president lights the national Christmas tree or throws out the first pitch of the major league baseball season.
Commander in chief. The job of commander in chief is one of the president's most challenging roles. As head of the armed forces, the president is responsible for the operations of the U.S. military and the overall security of the nation.
The framers believed it was important for the nation's top civilian leader to have control over the armed forces. But they also set limits on the president's control by giving Congress the power to declare war. Since World War II, however, the president has often committed troops to action without a formal declaration of war. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act, which requires the president to get congressional approval to wage war.
But presidents still find ways to stretch this law. As one scholar noted, the military role of the president is “whatever Congress lets him get away with."
Chief diplomat. Another key role for the president is that of the nation's chief diplomat. In this role, the president oversees U.S. foreign policy, holds talks with foreign leaders, and negotiates treaties.
The Constitution directs the president to seek the advice and consent of the Senate in making treaties. Taking this wording literally, President Washington went to the Senate in 1789 to seek its advice on a proposed treaty with the Creek Indians. After some debate, the senators referred the matter to a committee. Washington left in disgust, preferring after that to communicate with the Senate in writing. All other presidents have followed his example. Presidents do consult with individual senators, however, and they must still obtain the consent of the Senate to get any treaty approved.
Chief policymaker. Since Franklin Roosevelt's administration, the president has served as chief policymaker for the nation. Although Congress makes the laws, the president has significant influence over the legislative process. The president normally sets a policy agenda for Congress in the annual State of the Union address. The president may also propose legislation or pressure members of Congress to support or oppose certain bills. Other executive powers, such as the power to call Congress into special session and to veto bills, are more key tools the president can use to shape policy.
Chief manager of the economy. The president has no formal power over the economy. However, the president does work with Congress to write a federal budget and set tax policy. The president also appoints members of the Federal Reserve Board, which works to control the money supply and keep the economy growing at a sustainable pace.
Chief of party. The president is the leader of his or her political party. Presidents tend to have deep loyalty to their party and exert great influence over party members in Congress. They typically work to ensure that their party does well in congressional elections, in hopes of gaining or strengthening a congressional majority. They may take part in campaign fundraising or other campaign events. They also typically reward loyal party members with political favors or appointments to federal office.
Chief citizen. The president is also the nation's chief citizen. In that role, the president strives to embody American ideals and to serve the nation by acting in its best interests. In times of crisis or tragedy, the president as chief citizen works to inform, inspire, and comfort the American people.
The president also plays an important role as head of the executive branch in the federal system of checks and balances. As chief executive, the president can check the power of the legislative branch by approving or vetoing legislation passed by Congress. Likewise, the president can influence the power of the judicial branch by nominating judges to the Supreme Court and other federal courts.
The presidential veto is a powerful tool for influencing policy. The president is required to sign or veto a bill within ten days of receiving it from Congress. If the president fails to act within that time, the bill automatically becomes law. However, the president only needs to veto the bill if Congress is in session. If Congress adjourns during those ten days, the president can do nothing and simply let the bill die. This is known as a pocket veto.
The president can also check the power of Congress by invoking executive privilege. Although this power is not formally granted in the Constitution, it has developed over time through custom and practice. Executive privilege allows the president to deny access to White House documents, even when Congress wants to see them, on the grounds that keeping such records confidential is vital to the operations of the executive branch. The Supreme Court has recognized the right of presidents to invoke executive privilege, though not in all cases. For example, the Court refused to back President Nixon's use of executive privilege during the Watergate Scandal.
Without help, the president could never wear so many hats, much less faithfully execute the laws of Congress. As chief executive, the president both oversees and is assisted by the vast bureaucracy that makes up and manages the executive branch. This branch consists of four main groups: the White House staff, the Executive Office of the President, the executive departments, and independent agencies. The diagram “The Executive Branch” shows how the executive branch is organized.
The White House staff consists of about 400 people. It includes the president's personal lawyer, press secretary, various speech writers, and many assistants. Many of these staffers have offices in the West Wing of the White House. The most powerful staff member is the chief of staff, who is considered the president's most loyal aide.
Presidents depend on the White House staff to provide them with guidance and advice on a wide range of issues. The chief of staff also serves as a “gatekeeper,” controlling who gets to talk to the president and who does not.
The Executive Office of the President (EOP) was created in 1939 by Congress to provide support staff to the president. Today it has about 1,800 employees.
The agencies that make up the EOP perform a variety of specialized tasks for the president. The largest, the Office of Management and Budget, helps the president prepare an annual budget proposal to Congress.
Other key agencies within the EOP include the Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) and the National Security Council (NSC). The CEA provides advice on the economy. The NSC advises the president on foreign and defense policy.
Presidents can also add new agencies to the Executive Office of the President to carry out specific goals of their administration. For example, George W. Bush created the Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives, which coordinates public and private efforts to provide social services. Later, Barack Obama established the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau to educate consumers about financial products and services.
The executive departments make up a third group of organizations in the executive branch. These departments carry out the work of government in broad areas of public policy, such as agriculture, commerce, and labor.
Each department also contains federal agencies that target more specific policy areas within the department's general focus. For example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation is an agency that exists within the Justice Department, while the U.S. Mint is part of the Treasury Department.
During Washington's presidency, there were just three executive departments: War, State, and Treasury. Washington met with these departments regularly to debate issues. Today there are 15 executive departments. The newest is the Department of Homeland Security, created in 2003. All 15 department heads are members of the cabinet, which may also include the vice president and the national security adviser. As cabinets have grown in size, presidents have become less inclined to hold regular meetings. Instead, they are more likely to turn to White House staff and other personal advisers for help in crafting policy.
The executive branch also includes dozens of independent agencies that help implement federal policy. These groups are considered independent because they do not fall within executive departments, though they answer directly to the president. These groups go by various names, including agency, commission, administration, authority, and corporation.
One of the largest independent agencies is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). This agency was created in 1958 to help the United States compete with the Soviet Union in the space race. Other well-known independent agencies include the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Peace Corps, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
Some independent agencies create and enforce regulations. The FCC, for example, has jurisdiction over channels of communication, including radio and television, and the FDA was established to promote public health through regulating consumable food and pharmaceutical products.
A few federal agencies are run like businesses. They depend on revenues that they generate themselves rather than on tax dollars. The U.S. Postal Service is one such agency.
Government at every level depends on a bureaucracy to carry out public policies. Yet bureaucracy is one aspect of government that Americans love to hate. According to critics, government bureaucracies are too large, too impersonal, and too self-serving to accomplish much. As Senator Eugene McCarthy once quipped, “The only thing that saves us from the bureaucracy is its inefficiency.” But is this a fair assessment ofl ocal, state, and federal bureaucracies?
Bureaucracies are run by civil servants, or civilian employees working in government agencies. In popular culture, civil servants are often portrayed as mindless paper pushers who insist on following petty rules and creating mounds of paperwork, all while ignoring human needs. In reality, most government employees are hardworking, highly skilled individuals who are dedicated to their jobs.
The work done by civil servants ranges from nursing and photography to engineering and economic analysis. Civil servants are responsible for providing many of the government services that Americans need and want. For example, public school teachers, park rangers, firefighters, and health inspectors are all government employees.
For a bureaucracy to be effective, it must have the power it needs to do its job. This power stems from various sources, including those described here.
Legislative and budgetary support. A bureaucracy relies on laws and adequate funding to support its work. Without adequate funds, for example, a public school district may not be able to hire enough teachers for its students.
Interest group support. Government agencies can gain or lose power depending on the response of interest groups to their work. For example, the power of the Environmental Protection Agency may be enhanced by support from environmental groups. Or opposition from interest groups that favor fewer environmental controls may weaken it.
Expertise of bureaucrats. The ideal bureaucracy is staffed by workers who are expert at their jobs. For a bureaucracy to work well, employees must know what they are doing. For that reason, many government jobs require applicants to pass competitive exams.
Longevity or permanence. The longer a government agency exists, the more likely it is to enjoy substantial power. In the same way, seniority strengthens the hand of government workers, who tend to stay in their jobs for many years. The average federal employee has been at his or her job for around 17 years.
Effective leadership. Federal agencies typically thrive under effective leaders. Conversely, they flounder when their leadership is poor. Without effective leadership, NASA would not have been able to land a man on the moon in 1969, just eight years after President Kennedy made that achievement a Citizen demand. Concerned citizens can help expand and strengthen bureaucracy by demanding government action to solve a problem. For example, public concerns about the safety of workers led Congress to form the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the early 1970s. This federal agency enforces health and safety regulations in the workplace.
The power of bureaucracies is not unlimited, however. Ultimately, bureaucracies work under the direction of an elected or appointed chief executive, whether a mayor, a city manager, a governor, or the president. Legislative bodies also monitor their operations. On several occasions, Congress has held hearings to investigate the work of federal agencies. To help weed out corruption, Congress has also passed laws to protect whistle-blowers, or employees who expose wrongdoing.
Bureaucracy has grown at all levels of government since this country was founded. Much of this growth has occurred since World War II, particularly since the 1960s, as government has provided more services to the American people. Although many people complain about the growth of bureaucracy, they still want the services that civil servants provide.
In recent years, the number of federal civilian government employees has leveled off. The size of the federal workforce today is about the same as it was in 1960. This shrinking of the federal bureaucracy has been made possible by privatization, or the practice of contracting private companies to do jobs once done by civil servants. Some 13 million people now work indirectly for the federal bureaucracy, either on contract with private companies or as state and local employees working under federal funding.
Many Americans have a story to tell about a negative experience with a public agency. At the same time, most can also recall a time when they desperately needed the services that civil servants provide. New Yorkers felt this way in 2005, when public transit workers went on strike. Some 7 million commuters suddenly lacked public transport. Many had to walk miles to get to work. When the strike ended two days later, commuters had a new appreciation for the value of public services.
On the other hand, government bureaucracy has improved the lives of many Americans. In the past few decades, it has helped achieve the following:
A century ago, many Americans lived in filthy slums that bred disease and worked in dangerous factories with few safety provisions. That has all changed for the better through the efforts of government agencies. Despite frequent complaints about bureaucratic waste and mismanagement, most Americans would be reluctant to give up the benefits that bureaucracy provides.
The executive branch enforces the laws and carries out government policy. A chief executive leads this branch and oversees the work of the government bureaucracy,
Chief executives Mayors, governors, and presidents are all chief executives. They manage executive affairs at their level of government.
Presidential power The president has certain powers under the Constitution. Over time, however, presidential power has expanded as a result of custom and practice. Today the president enjoys powers beyond those listed in the Constitution.
Presidential roles The president plays many roles as head of the executive branch. Among these are chief executive, commander in chief, chief diplomat, and chief policymaker.
Organization of the executive branch The executive branch contains many officials, departments, and agencies. The president oversees the operations of these various groups, with assistance from advisers.
Bureaucracy Most Americans benefit from the services that local, state, and federal bureaucracies provide, despite complaints about bureaucratic inefficiency.