To what extent do the media influence your political views?
In 1960, Richard Nixon and John Kennedy participated in the first televised debate between two presidential candidates. Nixon, weakened by a bout of the flu, appeared nervous, awkward, and uneasy. His face looked pale and sweaty, all the more so because he did not allow the television producers to improve his appearance with makeup. Kennedy, in contrast, appeared confident, relaxed, and appealing.
Those who watched the debate on television concluded that Kennedy had “won.” Those who listened on the radio considered Nixon the winner. The difference reflected not what the two candidates said about the issues, but rather the images they projected. This outcome underscored the growing importance of image over issues in political campaigns.
Kennedy’s television triumph in 1960 contributed to the rise of new players in political campaigns: media consultants. Their job is to advise candidates on how to present a positive image to voters. They make sure, for example, that their candidates wear flattering colors that will show up well on television. They coach candidates on how to speak to the press and how to respond to voters’ questions.
Media consultants also help candidates plan their media campaigns. They work with the news media to get free coverage of the campaign in newspapers and newscasts. However, most media coverage comes from paid political advertising. Media consultants help decide what ads should say and where and when they should appear.
Advertising is expensive. Candidates may spend up to 80 percent of their “war chests,” or campaign funds, on paid ads. Media consultants use opinion polls to make sure that money is spent effectively. They also work with focus groups to test the appeal of campaign messages. A focus group is a small group of people who are brought together to discuss their opinions on a topic of concern. Before the public sees a campaign ad, it has probably been discussed and tweaked by a focus group.
Political advertisements usually fall into two broad groups. The first group deals with issues, the second with images. Ads in either group can be positive or negative. Positive ads are aimed at making you like or respect a candidate, while negative ads are designed to make you dislike or fear his or her opponent. Both types of ads use persuasive techniques well known to advertisers. Some of those techniques are explained on the previous two pages.
Positive issue ads promote a candidate’s position on topics calculated to appeal to voters. A positive issue ad might highlight the candidate’s determination to improve funding for schools or to hold the line on taxes. Negative issue ads, on the other hand, criticize the opponent’s stand on issues of importance to voters. An opponent who opposes the death penalty, for example, might be criticized in a negative issue ad for being “soft on crime.
A positive image ad might show the candidate as a selfless public servant, a strong leader, or someone who cares about ordinary people. The candidate might be portrayed as a hero or as just “plain folk.” In contrast, a negative image ad might portray the opponent as weak, inexperienced, or lacking in integrity. Often negative ads include unflattering photographs of the opposition candidate. The desired effect is to convince voters that this person is somehow unfit for public office.
For all they spend on advertising, candidates and their media consultants work hard to attract news coverage as well. Almost all aspects of a campaign are designed to generate as much free publicity as possible. Often this is done by creating a photo op short for photo opportunity for the candidate. A photo op is a carefully staged event designed to produce memorable photographs and video images.
One of the most famous photo ops in recent years occurred in 2003 when President Bush, wearing a flight suit, landed on the deck of the aircraft carrier USS Lincoln to announce the end of “major combat operations” in Iraq. Clearly visible in the background was a banner stating “Mission Accomplished.” Images of President Bush being cheered by the Lincoln’s crew appeared in newscasts and newspapers across the nation.
National nominating conventions are also staged to attract maximum media coverage. In the past, conventions were dominated by long-Winded speeches and debates over the nominees and platform that bored television viewers. As a result, the broadcast media drastically cut their coverage of these events. In response, parties have streamlined their conventions. Most serious business is completed off camera. Prime time speeches and events are designed mainly to promote the party’s ideas and candidates to the viewing public.
Studies of election news coverage show that most reporting falls into two distinct patterns. The first pattern, horse race coverage, treats an election as a sporting event. Horse race stories focus on who is winning and why. Issues are discussed only in terms of whether they will help or hurt the candidate’s chances. Opinion polls, often sponsored by a news organization, are used to track who is ahead or behind. The results of the polls are then covered by the media as campaign news.
The second pattern of coverage, soap opera stories, focuses on the ups and downs of candidates and their campaigns. Soap opera stories thrive on gossip, scandals, and personality. Questions of “character” are more important than issues. During the 2004 election, for example, stories about Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry often dealt more with his “flip-flops” on issues than with the issues themselves.
In their hunger for soap opera stories, reporters sometimes practice what has become known as “gotcha” journalism. The aim of gotcha journalism is to catch the candidate making a mistake or looking foolish. In 2008, vice presidential nominee Sarah Palin claimed to be the victim of gotcha journalism during an interview with CBS News anchor Katie Couric. When Palin was unable to list specific newspapers and magazines she reads to keep up with world news, reporters released stories ridiculing her lack of response.
At some point during a campaign, media consultants may advise a candidate to “go negative.” This means switching from a positive, upbeat campaign to negative campaigning, also known as mudslinging.
The decision to go negative is not taken lightly. Polls show that the public dislikes attack ads. Going negative also leaves the candidate open to criticism for running a mean-spirited campaign. As Adlai Stevenson warned in 1954, “He who slings mud generally loses ground.
Why then take the risk? Cathy Allen, an experienced media consultant, advises clients to consider negative campaigning only when the candidate has absolute proof that the opponent has done something wrong or when the candidate is facing an uphill battle and has little to lose.
In the end, campaigns go negative because it works. Some scholars argue that negative ads work by discouraging voters who might have supported a candidate under attack from going to the polls. Others contend, however, that negative campaigning actually stimulates voter interest. They argue that going negative works not by discouraging voting, but instead by causing more voters to go to the polls and choose a different candidate on Election Day.
Like it or hate it, negative campaigning is part of our political tradition. How well it works depends on how you and voters like you react to what you see and hear during each election season.
In a democracy, public opinion serves as a guide to elected officials, a guard against costly mistakes, and a kind of glue that holds us together despite our differences. While the mass media may help shape public opinion, they are also shaped by it.
Public opinion Public opinion is the sum of a large number of individual opinions. Our basic views about politics are formed early in life through political socialization. Agents of socialization include family, schools, religion, friends, and the news media.
Opinion polling Public opinion is best measured by scientific opinion polling. Accurate results depend on surveying a random but representative sample of the target population.
Mass media Americans today receive information from print, broadcast, and electronic media. The news media serve as government watchdogs, agenda setters, and forums for an exchange of views.
Political campaigns Politicians depend on both the free and paid media to reach voters during campaigns. Today, image seems as important as issues in both campaign advertising and media coverage of candidates.