Reaction and Revolution
VI. The Revolutions of 1830
- A. The French Revolution of 1830
- 1. In 1824, Charles X (reigned 1824-1830) succeeded his brother, Louis XVIII. A dedicated reactionary, Charles X vigorously opposed republicanism, liberalism, and constitutionalism.
- 2. Charles X’s reactionary policies infuriated both his liberal and working-class opponents.
- 3. Discontent with Charles X’s arbitrary policies ignited three days of rioting in July 1830. Eugene Delacroix captured the spirit of the uprising in his famous painting, Liberty Leading the People.
- 4. Delacroix’s tribute to liberty portrayed a unified people dedicated to overthrowing tyranny. The unity proved to be brief. While the workers wanted a republic, the bourgeoisie wanted a constitutional monarchy.
- 5. The bourgeoisie prevailed. With their support, Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, became “king of the French.” Louis Philippe prided himself on being a “citizen king” who supported France’s business interests.
- B. Revolution in Belgium
- 1. The July Revolution in France helped spark discontent in Belgium.
- 2. The Congress of Vienna united the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) with Holland to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands.
- 3. Catholic Belgium and Protestant Holland had very little in common. in 1830, riots in Belgium quickly turned into a widespread demand for independence.
- 4. Both Great Britain and France opposed intervention. in 1830, the great powers recognized Belgium as a neutral state.
- C. Italian Nationalism
- 1. Austria dominated northern Italy.
- 2. Italian nationalists formed a secret society called the Carbonari (“charcoal burners”). The Carbonari hoped to drive out the Austrians and unify Italy.
- 3. Inspired by the events in France and Belgium, the Carbonari rebelled. However, Metternich promptly sent in Austrian troops to restore order.
- 4. The Carbonari’s failure left Giuseppe Mazzini as Italy’s foremost nationalist leader.
VII. The Revolutions of 1848
- A. Causes
- 1. Conservative leaders steadfastly refused to respond to the problems and social tensions created by industrialization and urbanization.
- 2. Working-class radicals and middle-class liberals were convinced that the repressive Metternich system had outlived its usefulness.
- 3. Nationalists in Italy and Germany yearned for unification. At the same time, national minorities in the Austrian Empire demanded independence.
- 4. Widespread crop failures, rising prices of food, and growing unemployment helped fuel demands for change.
- B. Revolution in France
- 1. Affluent bourgeoisie dominated France during the reign of Louis Philippe (reigned 1830-1848). A leading minister rejected demands for extending the franchise to the working class by proclaiming, “Enrich yourself and you will have the vote.”
- 2. Unable to withstand public pressure, Louis Philippe’s government collapsed in February 1848.
- 3. As tension and unrest gripped Paris, liberals, socialists, and Bonapartists all vied for power.
- 4. Following a bloody confrontation between workers and the capitalist-backed government, French voters overwhelmingly elected Louis Napoleon as president of the Second French Republic. The nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis promised to restore order at home and glory abroad.
- C. Defeat in Italy
- 1. Led by Giuseppe Mazzini, the “Young Italy” movement sought to establish a liberal republic embracing all Italy.
- 2. The Austrians once again proved to be too strong while the Italians once again proved to be too divided.
- D. Hope and Failure in Italy
- 1. A growing number of German nationalists hoped for a more liberal German state.
- 2. In 1834, all the major German states except Austria formed the Zollverein, a free-trading union, to facilitate commerce.
- 3. Riots broke out in Berlin in 1848. Frederick William IV (reigned 1840-1861) responded by issuing a series of reforms, including calling a Prussian assembly to draft a new constitution.
- 4. Meanwhile, another assembly met in Frankfurt to draft a constitution for all Germany.
- 5. The hopes of German reformers were soon crushed. Supported by the army, Frederick William dissolved the Prussian assembly. He then rejected the Frankfurt assembly’s plan for a constitutional monarchy declaring that he would refuse to “pick up a crown from the gutter.”
- 6. The failure of the German reform movement had fateful consequences for Germany and the future of Europe.
- E. Revolutions in the Austrian Empire
- 1. Austria was a huge dynastic state in which a dominant German-speaking nation ruled a large number of subject nationalities and ethnic groups.
- 2. Revolutionary fervor quickly spread from Paris to Vienna. As tensions mounted, Metternich resigned and fled to England.
- 3. An Austrian constituent assembly abolished the robot, or forced labor, thus removing a major source of peasant discontent.
- 4. Revolution quickly spread from Vienna to Hungary where Louis Kossuth demanded self-government.
- 5. Despite initial setbacks, the Austrian government regained control. Only Hungary remained defiant. The new Austrian emperor Francis Joseph (reigned 1848-1916) accepted the offer of Tsar Nicholas I to help defeat the Hungarians. A joint invasion of Russian and Austrian forces crushed Hungarian resistance.
- F. Key Points
- 1. The revolutions of 1848 failed because of internal divisions, a lack of popular support outside the cities, and the continued strength of conservative forces.
- 2. Peaceful reforms enabled England to avoid violent revolts.
- 3. Repressive policies stifled reform in Russia.
- 4. The idealistic romantic spirit now yielded to a new age of political realism.
- 5. The revolutions of 1848 form a particularly complex sequence of events. Do not spend time memorizing the chronology of what happened. Instead, focus on the causes and consequences of the various revolutions.
