The years from the end of the Congress of Vienna, 1815 to 1848, are often referred to as the Age of Reaction, or the Age of Metternich. Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria set in motion a 30-year pattern of anti-democratic policies followed by conservatives – monarchs, nobles, landowners, and church elders – who dominated the continent of Europe. Metternich firmly believed that the American and French Revolution had been responsible for a generation of war, which caused bloodshed and suffering in Europe. As a conservative, he had a passionate hatred of liberalism because it had generally became associated with national aspirations. The idea that each national group had a right to establish its own independent government threatened the very existence of the nobility as well as the Austrian Empire. The conservatives, like Metternich, wanted to return the kings of Europe to power and restore the historic social class structure in society. Many peasants supported the conservatives because they wanted to preserve their traditional ways that were being threatened by industrialization.
In spite of the careful plans of the Congress of Vienna, there were a series of revolts inspired by nationalism or liberalism in countries such as Italy, Spain, Greece, and Portugal. These revolts began to spread to Austria, the German states, and France. Borrowing their ideas from the Enlightenment, the liberal thinkers of the 1820s and 1830s, many of whom represented the middle class, wanted a government based on a written constitution that guaranteed the natural rights of the people. The struggle between liberalism and conservatism erupted in full-scale revolts in 1848. The tidal wave of revolution ended the Age of Metternich and for many opponents of the old order it was the springtime of the people. The revolutions of 1848, beginning in Paris, affected all the countries on the European continent except Great Britain and Russia.
In the German states, following the 1848 uprisings, Prussia’s failure at democratic changes contributed to the growth of militarism within the country. Austria, meanwhile, struggled against the forces of democracy, and nationalism threatened the foundation of its polyglot, multinational empire. In France, the revolutions of 1848 continued France’s uneven march toward democracy as the country grappled with the forces of liberalism and conservatism.
In Russia, which was unaffected by the 1848 revolutions, efforts to modernize and reform the economy came into conflict with the goals of the Russian czar to retain absolute control. In Britain, however, different democratic reforms had evolved throughout the nineteenth century that helped to broaden the franchise and voter participation. By the end of the nineteenth century, both Britain and France had created the foundation for a liberal democratic government.
Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859) of the Austrian Empire took stern measures to combat the spread of democracy and nationalism. He began his diplomatic career in 1801 as Ambassador to Saxony, later to Prussia in 1803. In 1806, the Austrian Emperor appointed him Ambassador to Napoleon’s court and by 1809, he was Foreign Minister, an office he held until 1848. In 1810, Metternich was successful in arranging the marriage of Maria Louise, the 18year-old daughter of the emperor, to Napoleon, who had divorced his wife, Josephine. He also secured a temporary alliance with France. In 1813, Metternich joined the War of Coalition against Napoleon, when the French invaded Russia. Metternich reached the height of his power at the Congress of Vienna (see “The Age of Revolution: The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era”). After 1815, Metternich devoted his energies to upholding the settlements of the Congress of Vienna and maintaining the power of the Hapsburg Dynasty in Europe.
The Metternich System employed censorship of speech and the press, espionage, and the suppression of revolutionary and national movements. He also used secret police and spies to establish control. The German Confederation, as states under Metternich’s control were called, were forced to adopt the Carlsbad Decrees (1819), which banned freedom of speech and the press. Other countries in Europe adopted similarly restrictive policies. In Britain, the Six Acts (1819) were designed to control radical leaders, and in France the Four or July Ordinances (1830) forbade freedom of the press and reduced the number of eligible voters. Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia also formed a Quadruple Alliance and were later joined by France in 1818 (Quintuple Alliance) to keep peace and maintain order of the existing status quo. This cooperation among the major powers became known as the “Concert of Europe.”
Despite repression, reformers continued to demand democracy and independent governments. Frequent uprisings throughout the 1820s and 1830s weakened the Metternich System.
From 1820-1823, revolutions broke out in Spain, Sardinia, Portugal, and Greece. The revolts in Spain and Sardinia were easily crushed by the members of the Quintuple Alliance. A constitutional monarchy was established in Portugal in 1822. In their rebellion against the Ottoman Empire, the Greek revolutionaries won worldwide support. Many Europeans wanted to support their cause because Christian Europe saw it as a struggle against the Muslims as well as a way to gain territory and weaken the Ottoman Empire. In 1824, the work of the Romantic painter Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) entitled The Massacre of Chios glorified the struggle of Greek freedom fighters against the Ottomans and won the support of nationalists. In 1829, Greece won its independence.
A series of revolutions broke out in the 1830s, which first took place in France and then spread to Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany. After the fall of Napoleon, Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, was returned to the throne. Although undemocratic, Louis protected the people against the return of absolutism and aristocratic privilege. When Louis died in 1824, his brother Charles X (who reigned from 1824-1830) inherited the throne and decided to re-establish the old order, believing in absolute rule. In 1830, he suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted the press. This sparked the July Revolution (July 26-29, 1830). Angry students, workers, and intellectuals rioted in Paris for three days. Charles abdicated and fled to Britain. The workers and the intellectuals wanted a republic, but the upper middle class, who retained control, wanted a constitutional monarchy. Through the efforts of Talleyrand and the Marquis De Lafayette, the lower house of the Chamber of Deputies agreed upon Louis Philippe as king, a cousin of Charles X and who in his youth had supported the revolution of 1789.
The French called Louis Philippe the citizen king; he was plain spoken, dressed in a frock coat and top hat, carried an umbrella, and owed his throne to the people. Like the people, he adopted the dress of the common man. He replaced the Bourbon flag with the Tricolor of the Revolution and increased the electorate to include the upper middle class. The vast majority of the people, however, could still not vote and Louis’ policy favored the middle class at the expense of the workers.
The news of the successful July Revolution in France served as a spark to revolutions throughout Europe, leading Metternich to say, “When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold.” In 1830, Belgium revolted against Dutch rule, protesting against being governed by people who had a different language and religion. The Belgians received support from Louis Philippe in France and from England, and in 1831 they became an independent state. In 1839, all the great powers recognized Belgium as a neutral state. Nationalist uprisings also took place in Italy, Germany, and Poland; these revolts were easily crushed by Austria and Russia, however. The successful revolutions in France and Belgium showed that even in Western Europe, the Metternich System could not contain the forces of democracy and nationalism.
The specter of revolutions, which according to Karl Marx haunted Europe in 1848, were similar to those that had previously haunted Europe in 1789 and 1830. In 1848, however – a time of social and economic change – the revolutionary demands were widespread and irrepressible. Agricultural disasters, such as the Irish potato famine, widespread unemployment, and tension between the urban workers and the new class of capitalists created by the Industrial Revolution added to the discontent. The power of nationalism in the German and Italian states, moreover, added fuel to an already smoldering fire.
As usual, France started the revolutionary tide by revolting early in February of 1848. King Louis Philippe aroused the opposition of both the liberal and the radical Republicans. The liberal Republicans were moderate and middle class who supported the expansion of the suffrage for all male voters. The radical Republicans wanted to promote social and economic changes to help the lives of the workers. They both opposed a monarchy and the liberal Republicans, who had formerly supported Louis Philippe, denounced the rampant corruption of his government, and voting restrictions. Unemployed workers, who had no vote, were also unhappy with Louis Philippe’s government. In February, when the government prohibited a scheduled political meeting held by Republicans to honor George Washington, angry crowds took to the streets of Paris.
During the February Days (February 22-23) workers, students, and radicals rioted, and demonstrators clashed with troops. On February 24, as the turmoil spread and the workers took control of Paris, Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England. A provisional government was created composed of Political Republicans (middle class liberals) and Social Republicans (the working class group), who set national elections for April. Differences divided the government, however: The middle class liberals in control of the government were led by Alphonse Lamartine (1790-1869), who favored moderate reforms and had little sympathy for the working poor, although they gave some concessions to the workers. Louis Blanc (1811-1882), a Social Republican, was allowed to establish national workshops to provide jobs for the unemployed. In June of 1848, the upper and middle class who had won a majority of the votes in the April election (based on universal male suffrage), shut down the workshops claiming that they were a waste of money. Angry crowds stormed the streets again. This time, however, the bourgeoisie and peasants, fearing that the Socialists might take their land, turned against the workers. The June Riots (June 23-26) were unlike previous uprisings in France in that they constituted full-scale class warfare involving half of Paris. After three terrible days and the death or injury of 10,000 people, the government with the support of the army and the peasants crushed the rebellion.
Seeking to restore order, the National Assembly issued a constitution for a Second French Republic (the first lasted from 1792-1804 when Napoleon became emperor). The new constitution of this government created a strong president with a one-house legislature, elected by universal male suffrage. In November, Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was elected. He was installed as president of the Second French Republic on December 20, 1848.
The Austrian Empire consisted of many different national groups: Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Rumanians, Poles, Slavs, and Italians. Although the revolutions in the 1820s and 1830s had little effect on the empire as whole, the Hapsburg Empire, headed by Emperor Ferdinand I (1793-1875, emperor 1835-1848), was vulnerable to revolutionary changes. With its collection of different nationalities, the spectre of nationalism haunted the empire. Its government was reactionary and the social system provided little hope for the people. As news of the February Days in France spread across Europe, people within the Austrian Empire began to revolt. Many demanded more democracy and students, supported by the workers, demonstrated in the streets of Vienna, manning the barricades and invading the Imperial Palace. In March, the revolution spread to Budapest. The Hungarian nationalist leader Lajos Kossuth (1802-1894) demanded independence. He also called for an end to serfdom and a written constitution to protect basic rights in Hungary. The Czechs made similar demands.
Fearing for his life, Metternich resigned and fled to England in disguise. Ferdinand I agreed to the reforms and abdicated. Conflicts among the different nationalities (Hungarians against Croats; Serbs against Romanians; Czechs against Germans) weakened the revolution, however. The alliance of the working class and the middle class soon collapsed and the Austrian army regained control of Vienna. In October of 1848, the Hungarians invaded Austria and by April 1849 a Hungarian Republic with Kossuth in charge was created. In June of 1849, with the aid of the Russians, Austria defeated the Hungarians. Kossuth fled into exile while thirteen of his guards were executed. In Northern Italy, the two provinces of Milan and Venice revolted in favor of a united Italy. These revolutions were also crushed. The revolutions in the Austrian Empire had failed.
After Austria, Prussia was the largest and most influential German kingdom. Prussia included the Rhineland, the central region around Berlin, West Prussia, and East Prussia. In the 1830s, Prussia had provided leadership in creating an economic union called the Zollverein. Prior to 1848, the goal of middle-class Prussian liberals was to transform absolutist Prussia into a liberal constitutional government. Then Prussia would take the lead in uniting all of Germany into a liberal unified government.
The events in France in 1848 had repercussions in Prussia, where Emperor Frederich Wilhelm IV (b. 1795, ruled 1840-1861) had promised reforms but always hesitated. When riots broke out in Berlin on March 10th, the king promised to grant Prussia a liberal constitution written by an elected assembly and merge it with a new national German state that was being created. Although the demands of the workers, which included a ten-hour workday and minimum wages, differed from those of the Prussian aristocracy who wanted to assert their power over the king, the king allowed the election of a constituent assembly to draw up a constitution. In December of 1848, the king drew up his own constitution that was very similar to what the assembly had planned, allowing for freedom of the press and a two-house legislature with universal male suffrage for the lower house. However, power still remained in the hands of the upper class because weighted votes were given to those who paid more taxes.
The European revolutions of the 1820s and 1830s had very little effect on Russia. The Russian czar had ruled for centuries with absolute power and the ideals of the Enlightenment and French Revolution had never taken hold in that country. Alexander I (b. 1777, ruled 1801-1825) initially was receptive to liberal ideas such as promoting education, ending censorship, and granting greater freedom for Jews, but he became very conservative after Napoleon’s invasion in 1812. At the Congress of Vienna, he sided with the conservatives and opposed all efforts at liberal reform. He imposed strict censorship and insisted that all his subjects follow the Russian Orthodox Church.
When Alexander I died in 1825, his young brother Nicholas I (b. 1796, ruled 1825-1855), ascended to the throne. At the time of the succession, a group of young officers, known as the Decembrists, led a revolt in December. They supported Constantine, Nicholas’ brother, who they believed would promote a more liberal government, a constitution, and the modernization of Russia. Nicholas I crushed the revolt, executed some of the Decembrists, and cracked down on all dissenters. Nicholas created the Third Section, the dreaded secret police, who hunted down all those critical of the government and strictly enforced the czar’s decree that books from Western Europe be banned in the country. To bolster his regime, Nicholas I enthusiastically supported the ideals of Russian absolutism:
The autocratic regime of Nicholas I was not threatened by the revolutionary movements that dominated Europe in 1848. From 1848 to 1849, Russian troops put down a revolt by Polish nationalists and suppressed all democratic institutions. Nicholas also followed a policy of Russification, which forced Poles and other racial groups to use the Russian language and follow the approved Russian Orthodox religion. Many unsuccessful peasant revolts occurred during Nicholas’ reign.
Although England had established the framework for democracy during the seventeenth century, it still maintained many undemocratic features. Although there was a Constitutional
Monarch and a Parliament with two political parties, the government was not representative of the people. Less than five percent of the population could vote and the British Parliament represented the interest of the wealthy. Parliament was made up of the House of Lords, which consisted of hereditary nobles and high ranking clergy of the Anglican Church. The House of Lords had the power to veto any law passed by the House of Commons. During the nineteenth century, however, England embarked on a series of evolutionary changes that gradually made the country more democratic. One such series of changes came at the conclusion of the Napoleonic War in 1815, when England suffered a temporary depression that sparked food riots in many cities. In 1819, the government met force with force, which led to the Peterloo Massacre in Manchester. In the 1820s, however, reformers began to make some changes. Religious toleration was granted to Catholics, membership was allowed in unions, and the justice system was restructured allowing for a revised penal code.
In the 1830s, a greater series of political reforms were enacted that had a lasting influence on the country. The Whigs (representing the middle class and concerned about business interests) and the Tories (representatives of the nobles and landowners) fought over a reform bill about representation, as the House of Commons had not been reapportioned since the seventeenth century. The Industrial Revolution had led to the growth of cities at the expense of the rural areas. Although the population of urban areas had increased dramatically, the rural areas were still sending the same number of representatives to the House of Commons even though fewer voters or sometimes no voters lived there. These areas became known as the so-called “rotten boroughs” because they were underpopulated and did not represent the people. The Great Reform Bill of 1832 abolished the rotten boroughs. Adequate representation was given to the industrial areas and, by reducing property qualifications, there was an increase in the number of voters from 500,000 to 800,000. The Reform Bill of 1832 was the first step towards democracy. These changes began to put power in the hands of the industrial towns.
Because the Reform Bill did not enfranchise city workers, they organized the Chartist movement, a reform movement representing the working class and some lower middle-class workers. In the People’s Charter of 1837, from which the movement derived its name, the Chartists petitioned the government for the following:
In 1848, as revolution swept across Europe, Chartists marched on Parliament and presented their petition. Parliament, as it had done in 1837, rejected the Chartists’ petition. The Chartists failed in the short run, but by the beginning of the twentieth century all of the Chartists’ demands, with the exception of annual parliamentary elections, came to pass.