AP European History

AP Achiever by Chris Freiler

The Renaissance

Renaissance Politics and the New Monarchs

THEME MUSIC The following section addresses the theme, focusing on the overarching issue of the centralization of power and resistance to it. Take note of the strategies and institutions used by monarchs to overcome provincialism as well as how corporate groups and institutions (nobles, towns, church, e.g.) resisted monarchical forays.
Politics was central to Renaissance views regarding power, status, and values such as civic humanism. As noted previously, Machiavelli’s ideas played a major role in introducing a secular conception of politics, and historians such as Francesco Guicciardini emphasized social and political causes, rather than divine providence, in recounting the diplomacy and great events of the day. Given the divided nature of the Italian peninsula, regular diplomacy emerged to secure the balance of power. Ambassadors no longer served Christendom generally, but instead patriotically – and often deviously – represented their city-or nation-state. To ensure that no one power gained dominance, the five major city-states continually jockeyed for position, thus the concept of balance-of-power politics emerged, which would come to playa central role in European diplomatic thinking. Perhaps the best example of this attitude is the Peace of Lodi, signed in 1454, which created a fairly stable arrangement that ensured 40 years of peace. Furthermore, the so-called New Monarchies aimed to reassert strong dynastic claims with centralizing techniques in response to the disasters of the 14th century.
Though it is not necessary to have a detailed knowledge of each city-state, you may find it helpful to link the basics below to Key Concepts 1.2 and 1.3.

City-State
Government
Key Figures
Assessment
Florence
A republic led by members of the many guilds, but in reality dominated behind the scenes by the Medici family, which made a fortune in banking.
• Cosimo de’ Medici (1389-1464) – Patriarch of the family. Wealthy patron of humanism who helped found the Florentine Platonic Academy. (See Lorenzo, his grandson, above.)
• Savanarola (1452-1498) – Preached against the secular focus on art and pagan philosophy, eventually taking over the city, before being burned at the stake.
Florence was the center of banking and textiles on the peninsula, and one of the richest of the city-states. This wealth helped make it the Queen City of the Renaissance before the French invasion in 1494. Many of the greats associated with Renaissance culture made their name in Florence.
Milan
A military dictatorship ruled by the Visconti family for centuries.
• Francesco Sforza (1401-1466) – Seized control of the city in the 1450s and a good example of how reliance on mercenary soldiers – condottiere – undermined Italy’s independence.
Of the city-states, Milan was most closely tied to trading interests in central Europe. Strategically located, disputes over its control led to the invasion of foreign armies, and the ultimate end of the Renaissance.
Papal States
Technically ruled as a despotism by the papacy, it was really ‘ an elective monarchy that had difficulty managing the noble factions in its diverse territories.
• Alexander VI (1492-1503) – He represents the height of corruption in the Renaissance Papacy. Used his children to cement marriage alliances and regain power on the peninsula.
• Julius II (1503-1513 – Known as the Warrior Pope, he led armies into battle and also sponsored grand art projects, like the Sistine Chapel.
The period from 1417 to the 1540s is known as the Renaissance Papacy, and it is not a proud moment in the history of the Catholic Church. Popes were deeply involved in politics and seemed to the faithful more focused on luxury, art, and rebuilding Rome, which became the center of the High Renaissance after 1490. Because a line of popes ignored pleas for reform, the problems that would lead to the Protestant Reformation festered.
Venice
An oligarchic republic ruled by wealthy merchant families. Nicknamed the “Serene Republic” for its stability throughout the era.
• Doge – Leader of the Venetian government chosen by wealthy merchants.
• Book of Gold – Registry of the leading families in Venice; membership implied full citizenship rights.
The major trading power of the Italian city-states due to Its contact with the Byzantine and later the Ottoman Empires. Its arsenal represents one of the first factories in history. Finally, Venetian artists, such as Titian and Bellini, stressed light and color over line and composition.
Naples
Relatively backward feudal monarchy claimed and eventually won by Ferdinand of Aragon.
 
Though the city of Naples was Europe’s largest in 1500, the kingdom participated minimally in the intellectual and artistic Renaissance.
The state as we know it today did not exist in 1500, yet the New Monarchies of this era were laying its foundations. To rebuild after the devastation of the 14th and early 15th centuries, monarchs engaged in similar policies, while at the same time addressing problems unique to their geographic location with more focused policies. General strategies of centralization comprised the following:

TAXATION Securing access to revenue, preferably without legislative approval.
TAMING THE ARISTOCRACY Monarchs established that they outranked other aristocrats by forming alliances with the middle class in towns and creating new nobles as officials, called the “nobles of the robe” (because their status came from their official capacities).
CODIFYING LAWS AND CREATING COURTS Most nations were still a patchwork of customs, dialects, and legal traditions in 1500, so monarchs attempted to establish royal courts that applied more uniform laws.
CONTROLLING WARFARE Medieval armies were private entities and less than reliable. The New Monarchies worked to make armies and war the prerogative of the state, which made sense given the increasingly complex nature of war.
EARLY BUREAUCRACY AND OFFICIALS Emerging states lacked the mechanisms to enforce their will, let alone keep track of the affairs of government. To remedy this, monarchs began to use agencies, committees, representative bodies, and councils to assist in implementing royal authority.
RELIGIOUS CONTROL The medieval tension between religious and secular authority began to tilt in favor of the latter, even before the Protestant Reformation, as monarchs asserted increased authority over the clergy and the functions of religion within their national boundaries.

Now let's look briefly through the chart below at how these general strategies were applied in specific instances. Throughout this review guide, we will use a straightforward conceptual device to assist you in keeping track of nations, rulers, and policies: Challenges (the issues and problems rulers/nations faced), Responses ( policies the rulers/nations enacted to address these issues), and Results (the impact these policies had on the nation's strategic position).

Nation
Challenges
Responses
Results
England
Following the Hundred Years’ War, England was plunged into the Wars of the Roses, between two factions of nobles. When the war ended in 1485, the Tudors set about rebuilding the power of the state.
• Henry VII (1485-1509) and Henry VIII (1509-1547) tamed the nobles, reducing the number of dukes from 9 to 2, and created a new aristocracy.
• Star Chamber-royal system of courts, outside of parliamentary control, established.
• Ended livery and maintenance, the private armies of the nobles.
• Built England’s first state navy. “Henry VIII took control of the Catholic Church in England and confiscated its lands.
The Tudors established the basis of English political and commercial power. However, Henry VIII’s obsession with producing a male heir demonstrated the continuing fragility of royal rule and created a religious issue that would not be easily resolved:
France
France had experienced warfare on its soil for over 100 years, while its eastern neighbor Burgundy aimed to replace French leadership on the continent.
• Louis XI, the “Spider” (1461-1483) added new territory to the royal domain through strategic marriages and by conquering part of Burgundy.
• Francis I (1515-1547), a Renaissance king, gained control of the French clergy through agreement with the pope (Concordat of Bologna).
• Established taxation with taille (direct tax) and gabel/e (government salt monopoly).
• Claimed lands in Italy.
France extended its territory, laid a secure foundation for taxes, and created the largest army in Europe. This represents a strong recovery from the Hundred Years' War, but the kingdom continued to face encirclement by the Habsburgs.
Russia
The truncated duchy of Muscovy barely resembled the Russia of today, as it was threatened by powerful neighbors such as the Mongols and Poland.
• Ivan III, the “Great” (1462-1505), drove out the Mongols, claimed Moscow as the “Third Rome” by marrying niece of last Byzantine Emperor, and created the streltsy, a military service class.
• Ivan IV, the “Terrible” (1547-1584), so nicknamed because of his hatred of the boyars (nobles), also continued Russian expansion.
Russia emerged as a great power, yet continued to face issues of cultural and technological backwardness. When Ivan IV killed his heir in a fit of rage, Russia fell into civil chaos and foreign invasion for 30 years.
Spain
Spain did not even exist until the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469, and even then, Spain needed to complete the reconquista of the Moors and establish a national identity among its diverse kingdoms.
• Isabella of Castile’s (1479’-1504) and Ferdinand of Aragon’s (1479-1516) marriage did not create a fully unified nation.
• Made alliances with towns (hermandades) to establish law and order.
• Completed reconquista. “Established strict religious orthodoxy with Spanish Inquisition (from 1478) and expelled Jews in 1492. “Sponsored voyages of exploration.
• Charles I (aka Charles V in the Holy Roman Empire, 1516-1555) inherited diverse lands and became the most powerful monarch in Europe.
Spain emerged as the strongest nation in Europe. Access to the wealth of the New World and Charles's inheritance of numerous lands established Spain's Golden Age. However, its crusading mindset, onerous taxes, and persecution of talented minorities set the stage for its subsequent decline.